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One of the most important facts of nineteenth century Western history was the urbanization of society. Life in the new urban society was exciting and complex-as well as full of problems. This chapter shows that although the urban environment had long been crowded and unhealthy, the rapid growth of urban population made such problems worst. However, by the 1840's, urban problems were attacked and partly solved in both Great Britain and the continental countries. For example, throughout Europe a movement for better public health brought about sewer and water systems and gradually cleaned up the worst filth. Likewise, there were revolutionary breakthroughs in preventive medicine in the 1860's and after as Pasteur and his followers discovered how germs spread disease and how disease could be controlled. Urban planning and public transportation helped people move to better, less crowded housing. Thus, by the late nineteenth century the quality of life in cities had improved dramatically for ordinary people and the working classes. However, enormous social and economic differences between upper and lower classes continued to exist as urban and industrial growth created new classes, class conflict, and a more complex social hierarchy. The chapter illustrates these differences by describing the different classes and some of the fascinating details of their distinctive lifestyles. during this period family life, sexual practices, and the role of women changed dramatically. In general, family life became more stable and affectionate in the later nineteenth century, but economic activities Became rigidly separated according to sex-with most women relegated to the position of mother and homemaker. Only in poor families did women work. Women were subordinated to their husbands in law as well, although it appears that their power in the home increased. The result of this discrimination was the emergence of a feminist movement among middle- and working-class women. At the same time family size declined and children were treated in a more affectionate (and more calculated) manner-so much so that family life in the nineteenth century became tremendously intense. Major intellectual developments in the urban society included an expansion of scientific knowledge and the rise of realism as the dominant literary mood. Scientific thought scored theoretical triumphs, which resulted in practical improvements, a growing faith in progress, and great prestige for scientists and their methods. Influential social thinkers such as Comte and Marx sought to determine society's unalterable scientific laws, while Social Darwinists applied Darwin's theory of natural selection to human affairs. The trend toward secular thinking strengthened. Literary realism, fascinated by scientific laws, ordinary people, and urban problems, fully reflected the spirit of the age.
The Coalworkers
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